Furniture Depicting the Four Continents Suite
As my semester winds down, I'd like to share some of my final assignments with you! In my History of Western Textiles class I was to choose a textile within a set time period and to follow up with a basic catalog description as well as an essay probing in to the history of the piece. I chose a Louis XVI suite of furniture prominently displayed in the Met's beautiful Interwoven Globe exposition. Below is my paper. Enjoy!
-Sarah Finley
Object
type: Two settees and four armchairs
Materials
& Techniques: Wood; wool and silk. Tapestry woven
upholstery mounted on carved and gilded wood.
Measurements:
Chairs: 37-3/4 (height) x 27
(width) x 24 in. (depth); Settees: 42-1/4 (height) x 75-3/8 (width) x 28 in. (depth)
Inscriptions & Markings: None, so far as could be seen on exhibition.
Distinguishing Features: Both settees show signs of wear around the
base of the cushions on the gilded wood, as well as on the arm rests. The chair
depicting Europe shows the same type of wear, while the rest of the armchairs
are in better shape. All chairs and settees but one (Africa) appear to have a
conservation-type covering underneath the upholstery to cover any rips or tears
in the fabric’s underside.
Title: Furniture Depicting the Four Continents Suite
Subject: Depictions of the Four Continents: The settees bear images
of the continents interacting with each other, while the armchairs depict
personifications of the continents as well as native animals.
Date: designed c. 1786; woven 1790-1. Frames date to the second
half of the nineteenth century.
Maker: Royal Manufactory, Beauvais, France; Workshop of de Menou. Based
on a composition by Jean-Jacques-Francois Le Barbier.
Description: The Four
Continents Suite, in totality, consists of two settees, twelve armchairs and four
matching tapestries. On display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art are the two
settees and four of the armchairs. Each piece is constructed of gilded wood and
tapestry woven upholstery in wool and silk colored thread. Depicted upon the
settees are personified representations grouped together: Africa and Asia, and
Europe and America, respectively.[1]
The four chairs are dedicated to each of these continents separately; portrayed
on seat backs are characterized indigenous peoples while the seats themselves
bear images of native animals.[2]
Essay:
In 1786 Louis XVI placed a commission with the Royal
Manufactory of Beauvais for a tapestry and furniture suite depicting the four
continents. The tapestries themselves were woven from 1790-1791 using wool and
silk colored threads on a warp-weighted loom. The weave structure consists of a
weft-faced plain weave with color changes. Plain weave is one of the most
common and simple weave structures used throughout history but as weft threads
must be changed often when depicting various colors in a tapestry, this weave
is time consuming to create. For this reason tapestries, at the height of their
popularity, were manufactured by well-staffed workshops in order to keep up
with production demands. The woven colors in the Four Continent tapestries
appear to be stitched together, a common and practical way of finishing a
tapestry; as the weaver does not always choose to dovetail colors (connecting
threads by looping), stitching is sometimes done in order to avoid snag-causing
floating wefts.[3]
The textiles depicting the Four Continents intended for
use as upholstery were not affixed to their frames until 1852. This seemingly
unusual practice was normal at the time as clients wished to accommodate such
luxurious and high-quality woven fabrics. [4]
The suite, which in its entirety consists of four tapestries, two settees, and
twelve armchairs, is speculated to have been intended as a gift to George
Washington. As its completion coincided with the French Revolution, its initial
end use was as partial payment by France to the merchant Abraham Alcan, who
supplied goods to the Republican Army.[5] It
follows in taste the Louis XVI style of drawing room furniture, leading one to
believe that this was indeed a grand scale, political gift, as the set would
need a sizable room in which to be displayed and utilized.[6]
The designer of the Four Continents motif for this set of
furniture was Jean-Jacques-Francois Le Barbier, a well-respected French writer
and artist, whose work was often re-created in etchings for the Paris Salon.[7]
His popularity soared prior to the Revolution and as his status as respected
artist was set, it is not surprising that his design would have been chosen as
a royal commission. The Royal Manufactory of Beauvais, while indicated as
“royal”, was in actuality a private commercial enterprise under protection of
the King.[8]
Because of this, leading scholars note that typical commercial Beauvais
tapestry was not as “rich or complete” as the Four Continents suite, marking
the suite’s existence as quite unique within the history of the manufactory’s
existence.[9]
During the 16th century the allegory of the
four continents was a widely popular design motif, exhibited within the arts in
the form of paintings and ceramics.[10]
Usually depicted as women, the continents displayed standard, generalized
attributes, allegories that were copied across the artistic genres. America
tended to wear feathers while Africa was consistently portrayed as a dark
skinned people, Asia was depicted alongside wealth, and Europe was commonly
presented with a noble horse, symbols of the sciences, or at the least, a dignified
sense of refinement.[11]
What marks the Louis XVI Four Continent suite apart from
the rest of decorative art history is Le Barbier’s highly original take on the
depiction of the continents.[12] Until this point, America had commonly been
represented as an independent, warrior-like woman, but in Le Barbier’s depiction
she is seen mellowed down to a demure young girl under the protection and
guidance of France. This new concept of America had been introduced by Benjamin
Franklin and was very attractive to the French mentality; it could be argued
that perhaps this American infatuation of sorts is where the speculation over
the suite’s status as a gift to George Washington originated. The French had a
longstanding political embitterment towards the British and the concept of
aiding, albeit being the savior of, the American people in their fight towards
freedom was very popular in Franconia propaganda. [13]
Thus, instead of the whole of the images glorifying European (mainly British)
power, Le Barbier celebrates America and France while depicting the other
continents as “humans surrounded by details that marked their status relative
to Europe.”[14]
These details mainly consisted of highly prized trade goods, essentially
diminishing the worth of other cultures to what they had to contribute to the “enlightened”
societies of Europe.
Following this iconological train of thought, one of the
most popular ways allegorical images were spread and developed was through the
use of decorative ceramics. The dessert
course of a formal dinner often included politically suggestive, thoughtful, or
aesthetically pleasurable ceramics in order to convey messages of power or to
charm guests.[15]
The Victoria and Albert Museum owns several ceramic figures representing the
Four Continents circa 1765.[16]
Most notable is a table decoration made by the Bow Porcelain Factory depicting
Africa (part of a set) as a black woman, in what appears to be antiquated
dress, with a lion at her feet. Compared to the depiction of Africa from the
tapestry upholstery suite, the porcelain girl seems young and, perhaps, naïve;
Le Barbier’s Africa is more mature and worldly, covered in what appears to be
generalized “traditional” dress of the continent.[17]
The depiction of Africa, as well as the other continents,
is seen in stark, stereotypical fashion in an ink drawing by the artist Teodro
Viero from 1783. Owned by the Metropolitan Museum of Art, Allegorical Figures of the Four Continents seems to be one of the
simpler artistic representations of this allegory but its generalizations are
more immediately comprehensible than those in the Four Continents Suite.[18]
Europe is a refined, wealthy young woman, while Africa is half naked, kneeling
on the ground, and clothed only in foliage. America and Asia are shown draped
in a mix of inaccurate, stylized ethnographic dress. Europe appears to be the
focal point of the drawing and the object to which all other subjects
represented are drawn or refer to.
On a grander scale, The Four Continents can be found in
art history interacting with imagined representations of the planets. Giovanni
Battista Tiepolo’s oil painting, Allegory
of the Planets and Continents offers a different perspective on the continents
as opposed to Viero’s drawing, one that appears to celebrate the world in its
entirety instead of focusing all its attention on Europe.[19]
The true focal point of the painting is Apollo and the myth surrounding him;
the Four Continents seem to merely serve as a side note and accentuation of his
splendor.
At the time of the Four Continent Suite’s creation, the
concept of tapestry covered furniture, while not unheard of, was not an
entirely common practice. It appears that before the Four Continents Suite,
based on royal inventories, few other suites of this magnitude were ever
commissioned to be covered with tapestry.[20] Surviving
examples of this rarity are four upholstery panels for settee designed by
Jean-Baptiste Oudry and held in the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s collection
today. The panels were woven under Oudry’s supervision between 1754 and 1756 in
Beauvais; the settee as a whole looks delightfully reminiscent of the Four
Continents settees and its upholstery shares the commonality of wool and silk
thread as the basis for its tapestry weave.[21]
The Metropolitan Museum of Art owns tapestry upholstered panels for an armchair
of the same period, also designed and woven under the supervision of Oudry. It
appears these pieces were part of a set commissioned by Count Johann Hartvig
Ernst Bernstorff of Denmark, explaining the need for such luxurious and rare upholstery.[22]
Compared to the Four Continents Suite, the imagery depicted upon the settee and
armchair is very tame in regards to subject matter; floral and woodland motifs
dominate across the woven ground of wool and silk.
The Victoria and Albert Museum in London owns another
rare example of tapestry upholstery from the second half of the eighteenth
century: an armchair crafted between 1780 and 1800 featuring Aubusson tapestry.
[23]
The Aubusson tapestry manufactory was a smaller tapestry workshop than that in Beauvais
but they were able to compete equally with Beauvais as well as the chief
tapestry producers in France, the royal manufactory of Gobelins.[24] The
tapestry upholstery was woven decades prior to the current chair’s production;
it is speculated, with good reason, that the pieces were originally designed
for the larger, more fashionable chairs of the 1750s and 1760s. The V&A’s
website clearly states signs of reuse, directing viewers to rust stains and
cuts in the fabric made to accommodate the new frame. The tapestry features a
Chinoiserie design on its seat back while the Cock and the Fox from La
Fontaine’s “Fables” are depicted on the seat itself. The fibers used are
speculated to be hand-woven hemp, jute, and linen; clearly, a rougher
upholstery fabric compared to The Four Continents Suite.[25]
The Four Continents Suite is therefore revolutionary in that
it appears to be one of the most luxurious Louis XVI style pieces of furniture
created during the climax of both tapestry production and King Louis XVI’s
reign. Its iconography and allegorical
content prove to be a source for the ever-evolving historical and political
perspectives of the eighteenth century. Much like today, popular themes serve
as satirical or caricaturized commentary on world affairs; at the time of Le
Barbier’s work, social commentary may not have been the intended goal, but the
Four Continents Suite provides scholars a useful tool for gauging France’s
political view of the world at the time of the French Revolution. Though,
inconclusive is the theory of to whom, or even if, the suite was intended as a
gift, the suite as a whole serves as a testament to the immense popularity of
the Four Continents allegory. Mention must also be made of Le Barbier’s talents
and popularity as an artist. Le Barbier’s career serves as an interesting topic
for art historians as well as textile scholars as the man was deeply
influential within both realms. The Four Continents Suite is a fine example of
an artist so well known within the French Salons as to catch the eye of the
King; intertwined in this way are their stories and the history of France.
Figure
1:
Settee depicting Asia and Africa from the Four Continents Suite, c. 1790-1. "The
Metropolitan Museum of Art - Settee." The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
http://www.metmuseum.org/collections/search-the-collections/231928?img=4
Figure
2:
Settee depicting America and Europe from the Four Continents Suite, c. 1790-1.
"The
Metropolitan Museum of Art - America." The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
http://www.metmuseum.org/collections/search-the-collections/231927
Figure 3: Armchair depicting Africa from
the Four Continents Suite, c. 1790-1. "The
Metropolitan Museum of Art - Armchair." The Metropolitan Museum of Art. http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/231940?rpp=20&pg=1&od=on&ao=on&ft=four+continents+furniture&pos=5
(accessed November 23, 2013).
Figure
4:
Armchair depicting America from the Four Continents Suite, c. 1790-1. "The
Metropolitan Museum of Art - Armchair." The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/231930?rpp=20&pg=1&od=on&ao=on&ft=four+continents+furniture&pos=8
Figure
5:
Armchair depicting Asia from the Four Continents Suite, c. 1790-1. "The
Metropolitan Museum of Art - Armchair." The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/231935?rpp=20&pg=1&od=on&ao=on&ft=four+continents+furniture&pos=4
Figure
6:
Armchair depicting Europe from the Four Continents Suite, c. 1790-1. "The
Metropolitan Museum of Art - Armchair." The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/231932?rpp=20&pg=1&od=on&ao=on&ft=four+continents+furniture&pos=3
Figure
7:
Africa as depicted by the Bow Porcelain Factory, c. 1765. Victoria and Albert
Museum. "Figure|Bow Porcelain Factory." V&A Search the
Collections.
http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O123356/figure-bow-porcelain-factory/
Figure 8: Allegorical
Figures of the Four Continents by Teodoro Viero c. 1783. "The
Metropolitan Museum of Art - Allegorical Figures of the Four Continents.."
The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/377856?rpp=20&pg=1&ao=on&ft=four+continents&pos=20
Figure
9:
Allegory of the Planets and Continents by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo c.
1752. "The
Metropolitan Museum of Art - Allegory of the Planets and Continents." The
Metropolitan Museum of Art. http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/437790?rpp=20&pg=1&ao=on&ft=four+continents&pos=1
Figure
10:
Four upholstery panels for a settee, c. 1754-756. "The Metropolitan Museum
of Art - Four upholstery panels for a settee." The Metropolitan Museum of
Art. http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/230987?rpp=20&pg=1&ao=on&ft=tapestry+upholstery&pos=2
Figure
11:
Four upholstery panels for an armchair, c. 1754-1756. "The Metropolitan
Museum of Art - Four upholstery panels for an armchair." The Metropolitan
Museum of Art.
http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/230988?rpp=20&pg=1&ao=on&ft=tapestry+upholstery&pos=5
Figure
12:
Armchair with tapestry upholstery, c. 1780-1800. Victoria and Albert Museum.
"Armchair." V&A Search the Collections. http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O129662/armchair/
Bibliography
Dyer,
Walter A. “The French Decorative Styles: III. Louis XVI.” The Art World, Vol. 3, No. 5 (Feb., 1918), p. 431-433
A good overview of the Louis XVI
style as an introduction to this period of furniture.
Four Continents Suite.
(New York, NY: The Metropolitan Museum of Art) Interwoven Globe; museum exhibit label.
The exhibit labels were wonderful sources for fleshed out
details not included in the exhibit catalog.
I found this book most helpful for understanding tapestry
weave and grasping the concept in a way in which I could reiterate it to my
readers.
Le Corbeiller, Clare. “Miss America and Her
Sisters: Personifications of the Four Parts of the World.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series, Vol. 19, No. 8
(Apr., 1961)
Very useful source in understanding and tracing the
historical development of the Four Continents allegory.
Parker, James, Jessie
McNab Dennis, Clare Vincent, Clare Le Corbeiller, JamesDavid Draper, Johanna
Hecht, Penelope Hunter-Stiebel, Edith A. Standen and Jean Mailey. “European
Sculpture and Decorative Art.” Notable
Acquisitions (Metropolitan Museum of Art), No. 1975/1979 (1975 - 1979), p. 30-42
Useful as a tool in regards to decorative art in general
as well as Louis XVI furniture.
Great background information and speculation on the Four
Continents tapestry and furniture suite.
Phillips,
John Goldsmith. “Two Historical French Tapestries.” The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin, New Series, Vol. 1, No. 3
(Nov., 1942), p.131-133
Good reference resource in tracing the tapestry work Le
Barbier’s artwork was involved with.
Very useful for definitions of textiles and weave
structures.
Rouaix,
Paul. “Style Louis XVI.” The Decorator
and Furnisher, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Apr., 1893), p. 14-15
An invaluable introduction and reference to the Louis XVI
style.
Standen, Edith
A. “Jean-Jacques-François Le Barbier and Two Revolutions.”
Metropolitan
Museum Journal, Vol. 24 (1989)
Prime source for information on Le
Barbier’s full career.
Stevenson, Mrs. Cornelius. “Drawing Room Set
of Furniture Louis XVI Period.” Bulletin
of the Pennsylvania Museum, Vol. 10, No. 38 (Apr. 1912)
A useful source in comparison of Louis XVI furniture pieces.
A reference survey of sorts; nice introduction to the
Louis XVI style.
Prime source on French tapestry and a very useful book
for understanding tapestry within the art world.
[1] See Fig 1-2
[2] See Fig 3-6
[3] Harris, Jennifer. 5000 years of
textiles. London: British Museum Press in association with The Whitworth
Art Gallery and The Victoria and Albert Museum, 1993. p. 24-27; Elena Phipps. Looking at textiles: a guide to technical
terms. Los Angeles, Calif.: J. Paul Getty Museum, 2011. pg. 76-78.; Amelia Peck. Interwoven globe: the worldwide
textile trade 1500 - 1800; [... on the occasion of the exhibition ... on view
at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from September 16, 2013, through
January 5, 2014]. 1. publ. ed. London: Thames & Hudson, 2013. pg. 271
[4] Ibid 275
[5]
Ibid 271; Four
Continents Suite. (New York, NY: The Metropolitan Museum of Art) Interwoven Globe; museum exhibit label.
[6] Mrs. Cornelius
Stevenson. “Drawing Room Set of Furniture Louis XVI Period.” Bulletin of the Pennsylvania Museum,
Vol. 10, No. 38 (Apr. 1912), p. 17-21
[7] Edith A Standen.
“Jean-Jacques-François Le Barbier and Two Revolutions.”
Metropolitan
Museum Journal, Vol. 24 (1989), p. 255-274
[9] James Parker. “European
Sculpture and Decorative Art.” Notable
Acquisitions (Metropolitan Museum of Art), No. 1975/1979 (1975 - 1979), p.
30-42
[10] Clare Le
Corbeiller. “Miss America and Her Sisters: Personifications of the Four Parts
of the World.” The Metropolitan Museum of
Art Bulletin, New Series, Vol. 19, No. 8 (Apr., 1961), p. 209-223; see
Figure 7
[11] Parker 30-42;
see Fig 8
[12] Ibid 30-42;
Peck 271
[13] Standen
255-274, Peck 274
[14] Four Continents
Suite. Museum exhibit label.
[16] See Fig 7
[17] See Fig 3
[18] See Fig 8
[19] See Fig 9
[21] See Fig 10; "The
Metropolitan Museum of Art - Four upholstery panels for a settee." The
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/230987?rpp=20&pg=1&ao=on&ft=tapestry+upholstery&pos=2
[22] See Fig 11; "The
Metropolitan Museum of Art - Four upholstery panels for an armchair." The
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/230988?rpp=20&pg=1&ao=on&ft=tapestry+upholstery&pos=5
[23] See Fig 12; Victoria
and Albert Museum. "Armchair." V&A Search the Collections.
http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O129662/armchair/
[24] Weigert 123-142.
[25] Victoria and
Albert Museum. "Armchair."
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